RADIO JOURNALISM
THE RADIO STATION
Have you ever visited a radio station? If you haven’t, let us find out how it is. You
may be familiar with conducted tours if you have visited some place of tourist
importance like the Taj Mahal in Agra or Qutab Minar in Delhi. There are guides
who take you around and explain. So let’s go on a conducted tour of a radio
station.
The building of a radio station as such may look like any other public building. The
offices are also like any other office. In this lesson, you will learn all about a radio
station and how it works.
In a radio station, there are basically three different wings. They are (i) Programme
Wing (ii) Engineering Wing and (iii) Administration Wing. While the first two wings
are responsible for running a radio station’s broadcasts, the administrative wing
provides all the support that is required for the functioning of the station.
Let us learn about the working of a radio station.
Radio studio
The moment one mentions the words ‘radio studio’ you may think of good sound.
You may also think of the photo studio with which most of you are familiar or a film
studio, which you imagine to be a special area for shooting. A photo studio is a
room which is made exclusively for taking pictures. It has certain conditions suitable
for taking photographs. The room generally is dark; has plenty of artificial lights,
which are powerful. It is suitable for the purpose of taking photographs. There
may be curtains and pictures or scenery as background. If you want to take a
photograph for a passport or for any formal purpose, you go to a photo studio. In
a studio, the visual scenery is appropriate.
But how does a radio studio look like? Let us see. There is a table and a
microphone. The room has just one door, which is not very easy to open, as it is
very heavy. Before one enters this room, there is a small enclosed place, which
has another heavy door. This empty space is called a sound lock, which prevents
unnecessary outside sounds from entering the studio. Note that we have used the
term ‘unnecessary outside sounds’. Suppose we record sound in an ordinary
classroom, office room or in a drawing room. What would be the result? You
would hear the traffic noise from outside or the sounds of the old fans on the
ceiling. You would also hear birds chirping or dogs barking. Suppose you tune into
your favourite radio programme and you listen to all that noise. That will be terrible.
You would expect what you listen to on radio to be clear.
A studio is so designed without any interference to ensure that outside noises are
not recorded and you hear the voice of the speakers clearly. For this, besides the
sound lock and heavy doors, you will find the ceiling and walls with perforated
woollen panels. Of course the studio is nice and cool with proper air-conditioning There will at least be two studios in a station. You have just learnt about one of
them. Now you will learn about the second one. This may be smaller in size with
the same type of doors, walls and ceilings. Here you will find the announcer or the
anchor person sitting on a revolving chair with a microphone in front of the table. There will be a computer, CD players, tape decks and a mixer .This is the actual
broadcast studio from where presenters make announcements. This may be called
an announcer’s booth or a transmission studio.
Control Room (CR)
Now let us move to the main technical area of the radio station which is often called
a control room. Whatever is spoken in the studio or played from a CD player or
computer is sent to this control room. All the programmes are sent from here to the
transmitter.
• The control room occupies an important place in the radio broadcast. It is the
place, connected with all the other segments of broadcast.
• Whatever the speaker/announcer speaks from the studio, it reaches the control
room. From here they are sent to the transmitter for its onward transmission to
the listeners. A lot of changes take place when one speaks through a microphone.
You may have noticed that your voice sounds different when it is recorded.
• In the control room, technical people control the whole process and immediately
send these waves to the transmitter.
• The transmitter sends these sound waves to the listeners’ radio sets which
convert them into sounds. There is no time gap in the whole process.
Studio Control Room (CR) Transmitter (XTR) Listener
• Transmitters are generally located outside the city boundaries.
• The transmitters are of different capacities such as 1 KW to 100 KW, 200
KW or 250 KW or above.
• Their locations are decided according to their capacity.
• A 1 KW transmitter is normally installed in the vicinity of the studio/control
room whereas the high power transmitters are installed outside the city.
Transmitter
You have learnt about the studio and the control room. It is essential to know about the transmitter also.
A transmitter is the equipment through which we receive the radio broadcast
on our sets.
– This is big equipment in comparison to other equipment installed in the studio
or control room.
– The strength and type of the transmitter determines the coverage area of
broadcast.
– There are two types of transmitters.
�� Low Power Transmitter (LPT) and
�� High Power Transmitter (HPT)
– Likewise, there are:
�� Medium Wave (MW) radio broadcast transmitters and
�� Short Wave (SW) radio broadcast transmitters
Station Director
The Station Director is in charge of the radio station and also the head of the
programme wing. In some stations they are called managers.
Station Engineer
The Station Engineer heads the engineering wing and is responsible for all the
technical work at the radio station.
In addition there is a group of technicians and engineers, working quietly behind
the scene. They operate and maintain broadcast equipment and oversee the control
room. They are responsible for the technical quality of the broadcasts.
Programme personnel
These are persons who are engaged in planning, production , preparation and
presentation of radio programmes. They are known as progamme executives or
producers. They are part of the pogramme broadcast process.
Transmission staff
Persons who are responsible for a smooth and trouble free transmission process
are known as transmission executives.
Radio Announcer
The radio announcer presents the programmes and is responsible for making them Station Director
The Station Director is in charge of the radio station and also the head of the
programme wing. In some stations they are called managers.
Station Engineer
The Station Engineer heads the engineering wing and is responsible for all the
technical work at the radio station.
In addition there is a group of technicians and engineers, working quietly behind
the scene. They operate and maintain broadcast equipment and oversee the control
room. They are responsible for the technical quality of the broadcasts.
Programme personnel
These are persons who are engaged in planning, production , preparation and
presentation of radio programmes. They are known as progamme executives or
producers. They are part of the pogramme broadcast process.
Transmission staff
Persons who are responsible for a smooth and trouble free transmission process
are known as transmission executives.
Radio Announcer
The radio announcer presents the programmes and is responsible for making them
There was a time when listeners used to wait for the familiar voice
presenting the ‘Binaca Geet mala programme of film songs on radio. The
voice was that of Amin Sayani.
Artists
In addition to the above staff, there are also music artists such as vocalists and
instrumentalists who form part of the programme staff. They are all eminent
performers in their own fields and graded according to their experience.
10.3RADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEM IN INDIA
Even before we discuss about the radio broadcasting system in India, you must
know about All India Radio commonly referred to as AIR , which is the main radio
broadcaster of India.
Officially known as Akashwani, AIR is a division of Prasar Bharati or the
Broadcasting Corporation of India, an autonomous corporation of the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting , Government of India.
The headquarters of AIR is at Akashwani Bhawan, New Delhi.
AIR has different services each catering to different regions/ languages across
India.
One of the most famous services is Vividh Bharati (All India Variety Programme)
which offers programmes such as news, film music, comedy shows etc. in several
cities of India.
Now, let us find out how AIR operates.
AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting, namely, national,regional and local.
The National channel of All India Radio started functioning on May 18, 1988.
It caters to the information, education and entertainment needs of the people,
through its transmitters at Nagpur, Mogra and Delhi beaming from dusk to dawn.
It transmits centrally originated news bulletins in Hindi and English, plays, sports,
music, newsreel, spoken word and other topical programmes, to nearly 76% of
the country’s population fully reflecting the broad spectrum of national life.
The languages of broadcast are Hindi, English and Urdu apart from some music
from other Indian languages.
The Regional Stations in different States form the middle tier of broadcasting.
This also includes the North-eastern service at Shillong which disseminates the
vibrant and radiant cultural heritage of the north-eastern region of the country.
Local Radio is comparatively a new concept of broadcasting in India.
Each of these local radio stations serving a small area provides utility services and
reaches right into the heart of the community,
What distinguishes local radio from the regional network is its down to earth,
intimate and uninhibited approach.
The programmes of the local radio are area specific.
They are flexible and spontaneous enough to enable the station to function as the
mouth piece of the local community.
FM Channels
What do you understand by FM?
FM stands for Frequency Modulation which is a broadcasting technology
or method in radio.
You may have all listened to one or more FM channels.
The FM service of AIR has two channels .
FM Rainbow and FM Gold.
There are 12 FM Rainbow channels and 4 FM Gold Channels.
The programme content of these channels is mainly popular Indian and Western
music, presented in a style which is highly popular with the urban youth.
News bulletins and current affairs programmes are also broadcast from these
channels.
There are also other AIR stations on the F.M. mode. There are several private
FM channels which can be heard all over the country.
Let us learn about them.
Private radio stations ( FM channels)
Radio Mirchi, Radio Mango, Big FM, Times FM ……The list is becoming longer.
You must have heard about one or more of them. But have you wondered what
they are ?
These are private or commercial radio stations which have been given a license to
broadcast programmes on radio.
Most of them cater to the younger generation by providing a mix of music and fun
Community Radio is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of a
limited area or a community which is homogenous.
It broadcasts programmes that are popular and relevant to the local audience.
A community radio license is required to operate a community radio station.
These stations are expected to produce programmes as far as possible in the local
language or dialect.
Although the stress is on developmental programmes, entertainment is not banned
on these radio stations.
Anna FM is India’s first campus community radio operating from Anna University
in Chennai, Tamilnadu. This was launched on 1 February 2004
The Radio Station
Working of a radio station –
�� programme, engineering and administration wings
�� radio studio
�� control room
�� transmitter
functionaries of a radio station
�� station director
�� station engineer
�� progamme personnel
�� transmission staff
�� radio announcer
�� artist
All India Radio
three tier broadcasting system
national regional local
types of radio stations
�� private radio stations
�� community radio stations
Types of Radio Station Broadcasting.
Marketing a radio station to attract listeners is no different to any other marketing exercise in any other branch of business. Radio stations themselves will, or should have identified the type of listener the particular station is trying to attract and all their efforts will go to achieving as high a listenership in that particular area whatever that may be. This effort to gain listeners is firstly dictated often by the size of their transmission area or the type of technology available for the transmissions.
- National radio serving the whole of the country.
- Regional stations covering multi-county areas or a group of city areas.
- Local radio, smaller local area transmission (similar say to a local newspaper area coverage.)
- Community radio, not for profit radio station broadcasting to particular defined communities.
- RSL, short term time restricted service licences.
- DAB stations transmitting only via a digital network.
- Internet, sattelite and cable stations.
- Hospital, Student or campus radio.
- and Pirate radio, illegal and unlicensed broadcasting.
Radio stations often define their audience by some of the above criteria and the station's chosen format and aside from some Public Service Broadcasting channels (like the BBC in the UK which by the terms of their licence precludes them from taking any advertising), most exist only through advertising, sponsorship or promotional revenue, and a very few through subscription.
FORMATS OF RADIO
PROGRAMMES
You are by now familiar with a radio station. The previous lesson helped you to
understand how a radio station works.
When you read a popular magazine, you will come across various things. There
will be an attractive cover, advertisements of different products, stories or articles
on issues ranging from politics to sports and cinema, interviews and other features.
Similarly, a radio station also broadcasts programmes of different types. Think of
the different types of programmes you have heard on radio. You would probably
remember film songs, phone in programmes, talks, discussions, news, cricket
commentaries etc. These different types of programmes are called formats.
FACTORS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT FOR
MAKING A RADIO PROGRAMME
Think of the village or town in which you live. You find people belonging to all
communities men and women, rich and poor. Radio plays a very important role in
the lives of the people of India. Though there are plenty of rich people and highly
developed cities, a majority of our people are poor and a large number of them
cannot read or write. So the only medium that can really reach them to inform,
educate and entertain is the radio. Radio stations especially those run by the
government perform a public service duty.
The requirements of listeners of radio stations are not the same. To serve them, we
need to know many facts about them. Let us make a list of what we should know
about the audience:
(a) Number of people — i.e. the total population of the area.
(b) Number of men and women — Sex ratio
(c) Literate people/Illiterate people
(d) The languages spoken in the area.
(e) Schools/Colleges
(f) Children going to school
(g) Health facilities — availability of doctors, primary health centre, clinics,
hospitals.
(h) Any major diseases
(i) Religions in the area-population wise
(j) Power supply
(k) Nearest radio stations/Television stations
(l) Climate of the place
(m) Main occupation of the people
(n) Income per head/people below poverty line
(o) Roads/transport facilities
(p) Irrigation facilities
(q) Number of people engaged in agriculture/other occupations.
(r) Types of crops.
You can add many more issues to this list. We need to know these facts to decide
the language, the type of broadcast, timing of programmes etc. Radio formats
therefore are decided on the basis of the needs of the audience. TYPES OF RADIO FORMATS
Do you remember the programmes you have heard on radio. Try and recall some
of them. You may have heard the names of radio stations, from where the
programmes are broadcast. Many of you would remember Vividh Bharati, AIR
FM Gold or some private commercial station.You may also remember the time
being mentioned and what programme you are going to listen to. These are called
announcements. Announcements have been traditionally made by people who
are known as announcers. The commercial radio channels may call them Radio
Jockeys (RJs) or anchor persons. Before you learn about the different radio formats,
you must know the ingredients of a radio format.
As you know most of what is spoken on radio is written down. As you have already
learnt that what is written for radio is heard and is referred to as ‘spoken word’ as
against the ‘written word’. But the spoken words on radio is written down or what
is generally called ‘scripted’. A Radio format can be split into three parts: They
are:-
(a) Spoken Word or Human Voice
(b) Music
(c) Sound Effects
All radio formats have the above three ingredients. So let us first classify the spoken
word format.
�� SPOKEN WORD
1. Announcements : These are specifically written clear messages to inform.
They can be of different types. For example station/programme identification.
These mention the station you are tuned into, the frequency, the time and the
programme/song you are going to listen to. As mentioned already you find in
today’s commercial radio channels, these announcements have become informal
and resemble ordinary conversation. There can be more than one presenter in
some programmes like magazines.
2. Radio talk : The radio talk probably is the oldest format on radio. There has
been a tradition in India and Britain to invite experts or prominent persons to
speak for 10 or 15 minutes on a specific topic. These talks have to go through
a process of being changed into radio’s spoken word style. Over the years, these long radio talks have become unpopular. Instead, today, shorter duration
talks are broadcast. Of course, you can listen to these talks only on public
service broadcasting stations.
3. Radio interviews: Have you ever interviewed anyone? Probably yes. In the
media, be it the newspaper, magazine, radio or television, journalists use this
technique of asking questions to get information. There can be different types
of interviews in terms of their duration, content and purpose.
Firstly, there are full fledged interview programmes. The duration of these
may vary from 10 minutes to 30 minutes or even 60 minutes depending up on
the topic, and the person being interviewed. Most of such interviews are
personality based. You might have heard of long interviews with well known
people in the field of public life, literature, science, sports, films etc.
Secondly, there are interviews which are used in various radio programmes
like documentaries. Here the interviews are short, questions specific and not
many. The purpose is to get a very brief, to the point answer.
Thirdly there are a lot of interviews or interview based programmes in news
and current affairs programmes. Have you heard such interviews on radio?
With phone-in-programmes becoming popular, you might have heard live
interviews with listeners. These interviews have been made interactive.
There is another type of interview based programme. Here generally just one
or two questions are put across to ordinary people or people with knowledge
on some current topic to measure public opinion. For example when the
general budget or the railway budget is presented in the parliament, people
representing radio go out and ask the general public about their opinion. Their
names and identity may not be asked. Such programmes are called ‘vox pop’
which is a Latin phrase meaning‘ voice of people’.
You have to be very inquisitive and hard working to be a radio interviewer with good general awareness and communication skills.
4. Radio discussions :- When you have a problem in your family or with your
friends, don’t you say “let us discuss?” Yes we do. Through a discussion we
can find out a solution to problems. In any discussion there are more than 2 or
3 people and then ideas can be pooled to come to some conclusion. In radio,
this technique is used to let people have different points of view on matters of
public concern. Radio discussions are produced when there are social or
economic issues which may be controversial. So when different experts meet
and discuss such issues, people understand various points of view. Generally,
these discussions on radio are of longer duration-say 15 to 30 minutes. Two
or three people who are known for their views and a well informed senior
person or journalist who acts as a moderator take part and discuss a particular
topic for about 30 minutes. The moderator conducts the discussion, introduces the topic and the participants and ensures that every one gets enough time to
speak and all issues are discussed.
5. Radio documentaries/features: If you see a film in a movie hall, it is generally
a feature film, which is story based and not real. But there are also documentary
films which are based on real people and issues. A lot of programmes you see
on television are educational and public service documentaries. Radio also
has this format. Unlike documentary films, radio documentaries have only
sound – i.e. the human voice, music and sound effects. So a radio documentary
is a programme based on real sounds and real people and their views and
experiences. Radio documentaries are based on facts presented in an attractive
manner or dramatically. Radio documentaries are radio’s own creative format.
The producer of a documentary needs to be very creative to use human voice,
script, music and sound effects very effectively. Radio documentaries are also
called radio features.
6. Radio drama: A Radio drama or a radio play is like any other play staged in
a theatre or a hall. The only difference is that while a stage play has actors,
stage, sets, curtains, properties movement and live action, a radio play has
only 3 components. They are the human voice, music and sound effects. Radio
of course uses its greatest strength for producing radio plays and that is the
power of imagination and suggestivity. For example, if you want to have a
scene in a radio play of a north Indian marriage, you don’t have all physical
arrangements made. All that you have to do is to use a bright tune on the
shehnai and excited voices of people to create in a listeners’ imagination, a
wedding scene. The voice of the actors, music and sound effects can create
any situation in a radio play.
7. Running commentaries : If you can’t go to see a football or cricket match
in a stadium, you may watch it on television. But for that you have to be at
home or at some place where there is a television. But if you are travelling or
outside, then you may listen to radio for a running commentary of the match.
A commentator would give you all the details of the match such as the number
of players, the score, position of the players in the field etc. So by listening to
the running commentary, you get a feeling of being in the stadium and watching
the match. The commentator needs good communication skills, a good voice
and knowledge about what is going on. Running commentaries on radio can
be on various sports events or on ceremonial occasions like the Republic Day
Parade or events like festivals, melas, rath yatras, swearing in ceremony of
ministers, last journey (funeral procession) of national leaders etc. Today radio
running commentaries especially of cricket and other sports can be heard on
your mobile phones.
8. Magazine programmes : You are familiar with magazines which are a form
of print media. They are published weekly, bi-weekly, fortnightly or monthly.
There are general magazines and magazines for specific readers. These magazines could be for children, women, youth or on health, sports, science
or music. If you open any one of these magazines, you will find articles, reviews,
features, photo features etc. Radio also has magazine programmes like those
in the print media.
A radio magazine is broadcast at a particular time on a particular day of a
week or a month. That means it has periodicity. Similarly it has plenty of
variety in contents. Some or many formats of radio are included in a radio
magazine. These may be talks, discussions, interviews, reviews, music etc.
Likewise, the duration of each programme or item in a magazine programme
also vary. Another characteristic of a radio magazine is that it has a signature
tune. A signature tune is an attractive piece of music which is specific to a
programme. It can be like the masthead (title) of a magazine. A magazine
programme also has a name and one or two presenters or anchor persons
who link the whole programme. In the beginning, the titles of the day’s
programme will be given by the presenters after the signature tune. They also
give continuity and link the whole magazine.
Magazine programmes are generally broadcast for a special or specific
audience. As the name suggests, a specific audience refers to listeners with
specific needs as mentioned in the beginning.
9. NEWS: Among all the spoken word formats on radio, news is the most
popular. News bulletins and news programmes are broadcast every hour by
radio stations. In India, only All India Radio is allowed to broadcast news.
Duration of news bulletins vary from 5 minute to 30 minutes. The longer news
bulletins have interviews, features, reviews and comments from experts.
�� MUSIC : When we say radio, the first thing that comes to our mind is music.
So music is the main stay in radio. There is no radio without music. Music is
used in different ways on radio. There are programmes of music and music is also used in different programmes. These include signature tunes, music used
as effects in radio plays and features. India has a great heritage of music and
radio in India reflects that. Let us understand the different types of music.
Classical Music
There are 3 types of classical music in India. They are:-
�� Hindustani classical
�� Carnatic classical
�� Western classical
There are also vocal and instrumental music forms. There are also light classical
music forms like, Thumri and Dadra. Insturmental music forms include string (sitar,
sarod etc.) wind (like flutes, shehnai) and percussion (drum) instruments.You might have heard such music on radio.
You may know of a large variety of devotional and folk music in your area and
across the country. Which are broadcast on radio.
But which is the most popular form of music? You would most probably say ‘film
music.’ While there are film songs in different languages, the one with a national
appeal and popularity is Hindi film songs. On most radio stations, be it public
service or commercial, Hindi films songs are heard every where.
Light western and pop music are also popular among some groups of listeners and
there is a large section of young people listening to western pop music.
�� SOUND EFFECTS
Let us see how sound can be used in radio formats.
�� Sound can play a major role in evoking interest.
�� Sound can be used for comic effects to evoke laughter
�� Sound can be used to create certain moods or enhance them.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY BASED FORMATS
India has taken giant leaps in the field of information technology and radio as a
medium, has taken a lead in applying information technology in its broadcasts. Let
us discuss some of these formats:
1. Phone in programme – In this age of technological development, phone-in is
the most important format. This is called interactive programming where the
listener and the presenter talk to each other. Their talk goes on air instantly.
The listener has the satisfaction that his voice is being listened to and replied
immediately. Other listeners also listen to him. Such presentations need advance
publicity so that the listeners get ready to air their grievances/queries or requests.
They dial up the announced telephone number at a stipulated time and get their
problems discussed with experts in the studio. Initially this format was introduced
for playing the listeners’ request based film songs. Now it is being used for
health related programmes, rural broadcasts, complaints against the government/administrative machinery etc.
2. Radio bridge : Radio bridge means connecting different stations throughout
the length and breadth of the country. In this technique, for example, an expert
sitting at Chennai can interact with the common man in the studio in Delhi. This
format was first used by All India Radio during elections.
3. Radio on internet : Radio on internet is a growing phenomenon with thousands
of radio stations operating through computer modems. It is altogether a new
format that removes the restrictions of frequency or license. It is relatively cheap to set up. It has certain advantages as well as disadvantages. Now all
the national and international radio stations like BBC, Voice of America, and
All India Radio are available on internet. It is now possible to listen to the
programmes from a radio station while working on the computer. All India Radio started its services on internet on 1st May 1998. With this, it was
possible to extend the coverage of programmes to all parts of the world including USA and Canada.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Formats of radio programmes
Factors to be taken into account for making a radio programme
�� Area population, sex ratio, languages spoken, number of schools and
colleges, health facilities, religions, climate, types of crops, transport
facilities, main occupation of people
Radio formats
�� ingredients of a radio format – spoken word, music and special effects
�� types of formats – announcements, radio talk, radio interviews, radio
discussions, radio magazine, radio documentaries and features, running
commentaries,radio drama, news, music
�� Information technology based formats – phone-in, radio bridge, internet radio
Writing For Radio
Radio as a means of communication is very effective. It is a medium where the "theatre of mind" can be created by using sound only. The medium in itself is very powerful and wide-reaching because of the primary reason that the receivers are highly cheap and portable. And with the advent of an inbuilt radio in mobile phones, the public access has become higher. Don't you listen to Radio every morning when you are driving down to work?
The medium is simple and also relatively inexpensive in production terms. It has an imaginative potential for the listener to add his/her own visual interpretation.
Radio as a medium is direct and has a massive, immediate distribution. As a major news source, it is widely heard and accepted. As an entertainment medium, it is psychologically acceptable.
In any kind of production, the script invariably forms the backbone. Sound is the entire means of communication in radio.
Writing for radio is a complex and difficult but not impossible process. In the field of literature there are a variety of forma a writer can attempt: the novel, the short story, the essay, the poem, the drama. Each one has its definite pattern.
Radio writing has likewise evolved into many forms. Talks and plays appear to be the major ones, but there are scores of other types, each having a variety of brands.Talks may be of so many kinds-interviews, discussions, sermons, unscripted round-table discussions. Then there are specific talks for different age groups and professional groups; for women, farmers, industrial workers.
Likewise news could be given in different formats: straight news, news analysis, commentaries, spot-renderings, flash backs etc.Writing for radio must be precise and properly proportionated.It is not easy to be simple, direct and brief. One has to develop the skills of writing with brevity and to-the-point, and resist the temptation of writing prolonged scripts, talks, features or dramas. The time factor is all important. It does not help if the script is long and complicated.
The proper uses of words, the right mode of delivery, style are equally important. It is an art to produce rich effect by familiar words and to sustain interest. Through radio programmes we want to tell something or the other. The art of telling something, say, a story, is an old one, mastered by few. The words used must be such that they can show, point out, announce, declare, with rich effect, without visual aids. In the choice of words, one must exercise judgement and aptness. Usually, the words used should be specific and concrete. Words are symbols, and when properly used an understood, they are carriers of exact meaning. Words, when uttered, describe something with a certain amount of expression, of feeling, reflecting the personality of the talker, resulting in some effect, achieving certain ends. Since we are restricted only to the aural sphere (listening), the familiar words have an important bearing. Pronunciation is a science and the words must be uttered properly if we want to create the right, the appropriate effects.
Script writing for radio which has to be in conventional style means writing for the ear. Newspapers obviously are written for the eye, which essentially means that if readers do not understand something, they can return to the paragraph or sentence and read it a second time. In broadcast news, on the contrary, they hear the copy just once. So, broadcast copy must be written clearly; thoughts must be expressed quickly with brief, crisp sentences. Broadcast writers must write the way most people speak. Short words are often easier to understand than long ones and, crucially or broadcast news, where time is precious, they take less time to deliver. Some examples are:
Avoid | Use |
Police abandoned the search | Police gave up the search |
Extraordinary | Unusual |
Transform | Change |
Emphasis is on simple writing but simple language does not mean a language devoid of embellishment, ornamentation or an extension of meaning
Long sentences should be avoided while writing script for radio news. The sentences as well as paragraphs should be short. The sentences that produce information overload should be avoided. The sentences should be broken into parts for easier understanding. Also attempts should be made to reduce the number of details in one sentence. Avoid sentences which are longer than 16-18 words. Long sentences should be split into shorter ones.
Apart from giving scripted stories, an important part of a radio reporter's job is to give voice dispatches which have become an essential part of radio bulletins. Broadcast news must present a sense of immediacy. Use of present sense verb, particularly present progressive verbs; which suggests on-going action adds to the immediacy. Such instances which are quite common on TV these days are called, "Breaking news" which essentially means news is being reported at the time it is developing. Such news items are quite common during election result broadcasts or important happenings. Apart from news script writing, much would also depend on how the news readers present the news bulletin.
Types of Microphones
On the basis of sensitivity
• Dynamic Microphone
• Condenser Microphone
• Electret Microphone
• Ribbon Microphone
On the basis of Direction
• Omnidirectional
• Unidirectional
• Bi-directional
Dynamic Microphones
• The dynamic microphone uses a wire coil and magnet to create the audio signal.
• The diaphragm is attached to the coil.
• When the diaphragm vibrates in response to incoming sound waves, the coil moves backwards and forwards past the magnet.
• This creates a current in the coil which is channelled from the microphone along wires.
• They are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use.
• They use a simple design with few moving parts.
• They are relatively sturdy and resilient to rough handling.
• Better suited to handling high volume levels, such as from certain musical instruments or amplifiers.
• They have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power.
Condenser Microphone
• It has two plates with a voltage between them.
• One of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm.
• The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates.
Electret Capsule Microphone
• The electret mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a permanent voltage built in during manufacture.
• This acts like a permanent magnet, this doesn't require any external power for operation.
• Though, good electret condenser mics usually include a pre-amplifier which does require power.
Ribbon Microphone
• Ribbon microphones have a very similar look to capacitor mics.
• Very popular with radio stations in the 1920s and 1930s .
• They are directional in nature, meaning that you must point them towards the sound you are hoping to pick up.
• Early models were very frail, but newer technology has helped their durability.
Directionality
Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some microphones pick up sound equally from all directions, others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular combination of directions.
Unidirectional Microphones
They pick up sound predominantly from one direction. They are more suitable for use in smaller studios. This includes cardioid and hypercardioid microphones.
a) Cardioid Microphones
• Cardioid means "heart-shaped", which is the type of pick-up pattern these mics use.
• Sound is picked up mostly from the front, but to a lesser extent the sides as well.
• Emphasising sound from the direction the mic is pointed while leaving some latitude for mic movement and ambient noise.
• The cardioid is a very versatile microphone, ideal for general use. Handheld mics are usually cardioid.
b) Hypercardioid Microphones
• This is exaggerated version of the cardioid pattern.
• It is very directional and eliminates most sound from the sides and rear.
• Due to their long thin design, they are often referred to as shotgun microphones.
• Isolating the sound from a subject or direction when there is a lot of ambient noise.
• Picking up sound from a subject at a distance.
• By removing all the ambient noise, unidirectional sound can sometimes be a little unnatural.
• It may help to add a discreet audio bed from another mic (i.e. constant background noise at a low level).
• You need to be careful to keep the sound consistent. If the mic doesn't stay pointed at the subject you will lose the audio.
• Shotguns can have an area of increased sensitivity directly to the rear.
Bi-directional Microphones
• It uses a figure-of-eight pattern and picks up sound equally from two opposite directions.
Eg: One possibility would be an interview with two people facing each other (with the mic between them).
• It captures ambient noise.
• Omni pattern mics tend to be the most technically accurate, but they may well pick up sounds not intended for them.
Omni sound is very general and unfocussed - if you are trying to capture sound from a particular subject or area it is likely to be overwhelmed by other noise.
What is Radio?
Radio is the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light.
Definitions
• Frequency
Radio frequency (RF) is the rate of oscillation in the range of about 30 kHz to 300 GHz, which corresponds to the frequency of electrical signals normally used to produce and detect radio waves
• Modulation
Adding information to a carrier signal is a process called modulation. To modulate a radio carrier means that it is changed in some way to correspond to the speech, music, or data it is to carry
• Electromagnetic Waves
Radio signals exist as a form of electromagnetic wave. These radio signals are the same form of radiation as light, ultra-violet, infra-red, etc., differing only in the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Electromagnetic waves have two elements. They are made from electric and magnetic components that are inseparable
Medium of Mass Communication
• Easily accessible and affordable.
• Oral medium of Communication.
• low production cost and extreme versatility.
• Capacity to provoke dialogue.
• Participation of local population is possible.
• Information dissemination is simple.
• A tool for democratization.
• A platform for expression of ideas .
• An agent for social change.
• Tool for exchange of knowledge and technologies.
• Tool for cultural expression and entertainment.
Characteristics of Radio
• Audio medium of communication
• Portable
• Affordable
• Greatest reach
• Easy educational medium
Example: In rural areas-high illiteracy rate…
• Alternative media to the imperfections of public and commercial media
Types of Radio Stations
• National Radio serving the whole of the country
• Regional Stations covering areas or a group of city areas
• Local Radio, smaller local area transmission (similar say to a local newspaper area coverage.)
• Community Radio, not for profit radio station broadcasting to particular defined communities
• RSL, short term time restricted service licences
• DAB stations transmitting only via a digital network
• Internet, satellite and cable stations
• Hospital, Student or campus radio
• Pirate radio, illegal and unlicensed broadcasting
Modes of Transmission
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Short Wave
• Medium Wave
• Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave.
• AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent.
• The frequency remains constant.
• Frequency Modulation
• It conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its instantaneous frequency.
• Was invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong.
• It requires a wider signal bandwidth than AM.
• Signal robust against Noise.
• High frequency and fidelity radio transmission is achieved.
Short Wave
• It refers to the high frequency portion of the radio spectrum
• The frequency ranges between 3,000–30,000 kHz (3–30MHz).
• Shortwave radio received its name because its frequencies were higher (and wavelengths shorter) than the medium and low frequency bands then used for radio communications.
Advantages of Short wave
• Government authorities have technical difficulties to monitor which stations are being listened to unlike Internet.
Eg: During the coup against President Mikhail Gorbachev, when his access to communications was limited, Gorbachev was able to stay informed by means of the BBC World Service on shortwave.
• Low-cost shortwave radios are widely available in all but the most repressive countries in the world.
• Many newer shortwave receivers are portable and can be battery operated, making them useful in difficult circumstances.
• Shortwave radios can be used in situations where Internet or satellite technology is unavailable (or unaffordable).
• Shortwave radio travels much farther than broadcast FM.
• Shortwave broadcasts can be easily transmitted over a distance of several thousands of kilometers
Eg: from one continent to another, especially at night particularly in tropical regions.
• SW is somewhat less prone to interference from thunderstorms than Mediumwave and is able to cover a large geographic area with relatively low power
Disadvantages of Short wave
• Shortwave broadcasts often suffer from serious interference problems because of overcrowding on the wavebands, atmospheric disturbances and electrical interference problems (particularly in cities) from TV sets, computers, poorly designed domestic appliances, and substandard electrical installations.
• Even under ideal reception conditions, the audio quality of a shortwave broadcast is usually inferior to that of domestic stations, particularly FM stations, and it is always in mono.
Medium Wave
• It is that part of the medium frequency (MF) radio band used mainly for AM broadcasting.
• Medium wave signals have the property of following the curvature of the earth (the ground wave) at all times, and also refracting off the ionosphere at night (sky wave).
This makes this frequency band ideal for both local and continent-wide service, depending on the time of day.
What is an Interview?
An interview is an exchange of ideas, knowledge and information between a journalistor presenter and a source of information.
lIt is a difficult art.
lIt requires good preparation, a knowledge of technique.
lIt should be thought of in terms of goal-focused strategy.
lMost important format in electronic media.
lBrings variety in Programming
HOW TO PREPARE AN INTERVIEW?
Research:
Research is crucial. The pertinence of your questions and your capacity to resist being manipulated depends on how good your research has been.
Making contact beforehand:
Making contact with the interviewee before the interview should give your interviewee a better understanding of what is expected of him or her and the context. It also means you can assess whether or not someone will make a good interviewee.
Preparing the questions
How you prepare your questions will depend on three criteria:
lPerson being interviewed
lReason behind the interview
lKind of Programme
Preparing your equipment
l Make sure your recorder is working properly (microphone, cable, tape, cassette, mini-disc, plug, batteries, etc) by doing a quick recording and listening back to it.
lIf the interview is to take place outdoors, take along a microphone wind-shield.
Techniques
lThe non-directive interview: This approach leaves the interviewee free to say whatever he or she likes.
lThe directed interview: The interviewer knows about what they are discussing, and sometimes even knows the answer he will get.
lThe semi-directed interview: Alternate the questions between those which guide the interviewee and those which may invite interesting and enriching elaboration.
Types of Questions
lClosed questions: Reply is either ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
Eg. "Are you in favour of free speech?"
lMultiple choice questions : The reply is induced.
Eg. "Are you in favour of the death penalty, or of life imprisonment?"
lSemi-open questions: Replies are short and precise.
Eg. These questions in general start with ‘How many?’ , ‘Who?’ , ‘When?’ and ‘Where?’
lOpen questions: Detailed replies, open to explanation and justification, etc.
Eg. "What do you think about free speech?"
Do’s of Interviewing
l Start with a question that is more or less innocuous. Just a warm-up.
l Alternate between open and less open questions to re-focus your interviewee on the subject or let him or her a little more freedom.
l Make them feel comfortable.
l Structure your questions, with the most interesting at the start.
Don’ts in Interviewing
l Do not ask derogatory questions.
l Do not interrupt him in between.
l Do not try to insult him.
l Do not pose negative questions.
l Do not barge into his personal life.
l Do not let him deviate from the topic.
l Do not play with facts.
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